-the most noteworthy development of the 20th century from standpoint of political communications was rise of television

-seen as major change from other types of media technology

-had different kinds of qualities (some good and some bad)

-thought to have profound consequences for political system

-today, we consider its history and impact on political world

-television was result of many different inventions over a period of two decades from 1920s to 1940s

1) England

-first public demonstration of a mechanical television was by John Logie Baird of England on January 23, 1926

-Baird invited 40 people from Royal Institution to his lab and showed them an invention that would produce images of human beings

-had ability to show gradations of light and dark shades (but no colors)

2) United States

-similar demonstration in U.S. by Herbert Ives and Frank Gray of Bell Telephone Labs

-in 1927, Herbert Hoover (secy of commerce) gave a speech sent by wire at 18 frames a second

-images received in New York City on a 2 by 3 inch screen

-accompanied by a wireless transmission from New Jersey to New York City with good picture quality

-produced newspaper story with headline "Television Now Reality; Device Demonstrated"

-experiments continued over next decade

-Summer, 1936--some limited broadcasting of Berlin Olympics

-1937--Coronation of King George VI and Wimbledon tennis tournament are broadcast in England (9,000 television sets sold in London)

-1939--FDR becomes first president to be televised at opening event of New York World's Fair

-Federal Communications Commission sets Sept. 1, 1940 as official start for commercial television

-1941--several networks (NBC, CBS, and DuMont) start broadcasting shows

-World War II stopped nearly all television broadcasting around the world

-concern over security and technology

-ban on commercial production of television equipment

-cancellation of network schedule

-some cities continue local broadcasts, but not on national basis

-higher priorities for other kinds of technical development linked to wartime applications

-Exception: Germans broadcast from Paris using Eiffel Tower (1942-1944)

-television takes off in 1946 and thereafter

-development of coast-to-coast broadcasting of televised images

-production of TV sets resumes (10,000 sales in 1946)

-one of first 1946 shows (Hourglass) broadcast by NBC in NYC, Schenectady, and Philadelphia) (musical variety show)

-June, 1946-Joe Louis boxing match seen by 140,000 (mostly in bars with television sets)

-Oct, 1946-first television soap opera (Faraway Hills) is broadcast over DuMont network

-in 1947, there were 44,000 television sets in the United States, compared to 40 million radios

-Sept, 1947, first broadcast of World Series game (NY Yankees against Brooklyn Dodgers)

-Nov, 1947, first broadcast of NBC show Meet the Press

-1948--350,000 television sets in United States (half in NYC and 3/4 in Eastern US)

-surveys estimate that only 10 percent have seen a television set

-68% claim to remember names of program sponsors (key to TV commercialization)

-1949, 2 million TV sets in US

-seen as powerful tool for political communications

 -start to be embraced for presidential addresses and campaign advertising

-1947, Harry Truman is first president to address nation from White House (he discussed international food crisis and proposed meatless Tuesdays)

-1952, Dwight Eisenhower becomes first presidential candidate to air television ads about his candidacy (snippets of live press conferences or talking heads with no animation)

-in 1959, 57 percent cite newspaper as primary source of news, followed by 51 percent for television and 34 percent for radio

-by 1963, 55 percent name television, while 53 percent cite newspapers and 39 percent say radio

-in 1986, 66 percent name television as top news source, compared to 36 percent newspapers and 14 percent radio

-interesting qualities that were quite different from earlier media (newspapers, radio, and newsreels)

1) visual aspect--combine sight and sound. Add visual dimension to audio messages

2) intimacy--live transmission brought images directly into living rooms

3) speed of transmission--image could go across country instantaneously

-government view: television too powerful not to be regulated

-in many countries, public ownership of television (BBC example)

-in U.S., little public ownership (except for PBS), but explicit regulation of radio and television

-public airwaves argument (commercial outlets using public space to broadcast so government could regulate industry)

-requirements of broadcasting licenses

-Federal Communication Commission has National Television Standards Committee in 1940 to produce industry standards

-NTSC recommends 30 frames per second with 525 lines of information on television screen (to go into effect July, 1941)

-1948--FCC has approved licenses to 27 TV stations in 18 cities (TV stations cost $1 million to set up)

-1949--Congressional legislation prohibits installation of television sets in automobiles

-Congress passes Fairness Doctrine in 1949 with implementation by FCC

-sets goal of balanced coverage in news broadcasting

-set as condition of federal broadcast license that radio and television stations provide "balanced" views in covering controversial issues

-what is meant by "fairness" and "balance"

-does not mean equality in political expression

-no requirement that every viewpoint in country gets equal time

-rather, it means that stations cannot present a single view without providing some chance for opposition forces to respond

-could be in news or interview shows or public affairs broadcasting

-how government wanted television industry to develop

-reflect political mainstream (but not extreme viewpoints)

-present balance at the political center (but not equality in expression)

-mass audience

-least common denominator programming

-appeal to mainstream, not fringes

-television as "cultural wasteland" (Newton Minow)

1) more attention to style over substance

-visual medium emphasizes looks over content

2) rise of telegenic politicians

-importance of good looks and friendly personality

-Kennedy seen as epitome of good and bad features of television image-making

-celebrity politics versus charismatic leadership

3) avoidance of political controversy or sharp political views

-television does not take advantage of its educational potential for mass audience

-TV fairness doctrine ended in 1987 (Reagan deregulation reform)

-same with radio

-a radio genre that has been around for a number of years, but which skyrocketed in popularity in 1980s and 1990s
-political talk radio typically features a host who combines news, analysis, and entertainment

-employs skits, spoofs, and satire
-style is cruder, more profane, and pushes envelope of social and political conventions
-Popular targets--congressional pay raise, the Clintons (Bill, Hillary, and Chelsea), government in Washington, scandal of the day
-Top practitioners: Don Imus, Howard Stern, and Rush Limbaugh
-Popular conservative talk radio shows--Oliver North, Gordon Liddy, Michael Reagan
-Liberal talk radio shows not as successful--Mario Cuomo (short-lived radio career), Jim Hightower of Texas

-of top shows, most hosts are white, male, and conservative or populist

-audience size--Annenberg national poll found 18% of adults listen to at least one call-in political talk radio a week

-listeners tend to be older and more conservative

-demographics--more white, male (60% male), and educated (twice as likely as general population to have college degree)

-very interested in politics and are politically active (contrary to popular stereotype that listeners are apathetic and hate politics)

-hold anti-Washington attitudes and are skeptical of government programs

Sources of Popularity
-talk radio fits with looser social conventions of American society over past decades
-unscriptedness, two-way communications with audiences, and populist bashing of unpopular targets
-means of political expression by those who are disillusioned with mainstream media or turned off by big government and powerful corporations
Impact of Talk Radio
-Limbaugh audience in mid-1990s estimated at 20 million listeners a week on 680 radio stations across country
-recent drop to 14.5 million (decline of "Rush Rooms" where viewers listened together at restaurants)
-books have sold 7.5 million copies

-$25,000-$50,000 for lectures

-monthly newsletter has 170,000 subscribers (example of cross-promotion)
PBS Frontline Documentary, "Rush Limbaugh's America"

This video takes an in-depth look at bombastic radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh, whose show reaches 14.5 million listeners each week. Opinionated, conservative, and very popular, Limbaugh has made a career of lambasting liberals, gays, and feminists. The documentary traces the career and impact of one of our nation's most skilled practitioners of talk radio.

-shows nature of Limbaugh appeal

-how talk radio affects political process

Broader Questions about Talk Radio
-why hasn't there been a liberal Rush Limbaugh who is successful, meaning a populist style basher who reaches a huge audience?
-what will the future hold for talk radio?
Additional Reading

George Everson, The Story of Television, New York: W. W. Norton, 1949

Website: www.tvhistory.tv

Wayne Munson, All Talk: The Talk Show in Media Culture, Temple University Press, 1993

Gini Scott, Can We Talk? The Power and Influence of Talk Shows, Insight Books, 1996

Rush Limbaugh, The Way Things Ought To Be, Pocket Books, 1992

Howard Stern, Private Parts, Simon and Schuster, 1993

Don and Fred Imus, Two Guys, Four Corners, Villard, 1997

Annenberg Study, "Call-In Political Talk Radio Background, Content, Audiences, Portrayal in Mainstream Media," August, 1996, University of Pennsylvania.